IKEA’s toy BLÅHAJ shark has become a beloved Internet icon over the past several years. I thought it might be cute to write a little Perl to get info about it and even display a cuddly picture right in the terminal where I’m running the code. Maybe this will give you some ideas for your own quick web clients. Of course, you could accomplish all of these things using a pipeline of individual command-line utilities like curl, jq, and GNU coreutils’ base64. These examples focus on Perl as the glue, though.
Warning: dodgy API ahead
I haven’t found a publicly-documented and ‑supported official API for querying IKEA product information but othershave deconstructed the company’s web site AJAX requests so we can use that instead. The alternative would be to scrape the IKEA web site directly which, although possible, would be more tedious and prone to failure should their design change. An unofficial API is also unreliable but the simpler client code is easier to change should any errors surface.
My original goal was to do this in a single line issued to the perl command, and luckily the Mojolicious framework’s ojo module is tailor-made for such things. By adding a -Mojo switch to the perl command, you get over a dozen quick single-character functions for spinning up a quick web application or, in our case, making and interpreting web requests without a lot of ceremony. Here’s the start of my one-line request to the IKEAAPI for information on their BLÅHAJ product, using ojo’s g function to perform an HTTPGET and displaying the JSON from the response body to the terminal.
This currently returns over 2,400 lines of data, so after reading it over I’ll convert the response body JSON to a Perl data structure and dump only the main product information using ojo’s r function:
It’s hard to envision cuddling a number, but luckily the product information returned above links to a JPEG file in the mainImageUrl key. My favorite terminal app iTerm2 can display images inline from either a file or Base64 encoded data, so adding an extra HTTP request and encoding from the core MIME::Base64 module yields:
I got you. At the expense of a number of other dependencies, here’s a version that will work on any terminal that supports 256-color mode with ANSI codes using Image::Term256Color from CPAN and a Unicode font with block characters. I’ll also use Term::ReadKey to size the image for the width of your window. (Again, this stretches the definition of “one-liner.”)
Friday, December 17, 2021, marked the thirty-fourth birthday of the Perl programming language, and coincidentally this year saw the release of version 5.34. There are plenty of Perl developers out there who haven’t kept up with recent (and not-so-recent) improvements to the language and its ecosystem, so I thought I might list a batch. (You may have seen some of these before in May’s post “Perl can do that now!”)
Perl v5.10 was released in December 2007, and with it came feature, a way of enabling new syntax without breaking backward compatibility. You can enable individual features by name (e.g., use feature qw(say fc); for the say and fc keywords), or by using a feature bundle based on the Perl version that introduced them. For example, the following:
use feature ':5.34';
…gives you the equivalent of:
use feature qw(bareword_filehandles bitwise current_sub evalbytes fc indirect multidimensional postderef_qq say state switch unicode_eval unicode_strings);
Boy, that’s a mouthful. Feature bundles are good. The corresponding bundle also gets implicitly loaded if you specify a minimum required Perl version, e.g., with use v5.32;. If you use v5.12; or higher, strict mode is enabled for free. So just say:
use v5.34;
And lastly, one-liners can use the -E switch instead of -e to enable all features for that version of Perl, so you can say the following on the command line:
perl -E 'say "Hello world!"'
Instead of:
perl -e 'print "Hello world!\n"'
Which is great when you’re trying to save some typing.
Sometimes new Perl features need to be driven a couple of releases around the block before their behavior settles. Those experiments are documented in the perlexperiment page, and usually, you need both a use feature (see above) and no warnings statement to safely enable them. Or you can simply pass a list to use experimental of the features you want, e.g.:
As the relevant Perl::Critic policy says, “Using warnings, and paying attention to what they say, is probably the single most effective way to improve the quality of your code.” If you must violate warnings (perhaps because you’re rehabilitating some legacy code), you can isolate such violations to a small scope and individual categories. Check out the strictures module on CPAN if you’d like to go further and make a safe subset of these categories fatal during development.
Not every new bit of Perl syntax is enabled with a feature guard. For the rest, there’s E. Choroba’s Syntax::Construct module on CPAN. Rather than having to remember which version of Perl introduced what, Syntax::Construct lets you declare only what you use and provides a helpful error message if someone tries to run your code on an older unsupported version. Between it and the feature pragma, you can prevent many head-scratching moments and give your users a chance to either upgrade or workaround.
Make built-in functions throw exceptions with autodie
Many of Perl’s built-in functions only return false on failure, requiring the developer to check every time whether a file can be opened or a system command executed. The lexical autodie pragma replaces them with versions that raise an exception with an object that can be interrogated for further details. No matter how many functions or methods deep a problem occurs, you can choose to catch it and respond appropriately. This leads us to…
Perl v5.12 also helped reduce clutter by enabling a package namespace declaration to also include a version number, instead of requiring a separate our $VERSION = ...; v5.14 further refined packages to be specified in code blocks, so a namespace declaration can be the same as a lexical scope. Putting the two together gives you:
package Local::NewHotness v1.2.3 {
...
}
Instead of:
{
package Local::OldAndBusted;
use version 0.77; our $VERSION = version->declare("v1.2.3");
...
}
I know which I’d rather do. (Though you may want to also use Syntax::Construct qw(package-version package-block); to help along with older installations as described above.)
Speaking of variables, ever want one to keep its old value the next time a scope is entered, like in a sub? Declare it with state instead of my. Before Perl v5.10, you needed to use a closure instead.
Perl v5.10’s bumper crop of enhancements also included the say function, which handles the common use case of printing a string or list of strings with a newline. It’s less noise in your code and saves you four characters. What’s not to love?
The ... ellipsis statement (colloquially “yada-yada”) gives you an easy placeholder for yet-to-be-implemented code. It parses OK but will throw an exception if executed. Hopefully, your test coverage (or at least static analysis) will catch it before your users do.
The each, keys, and values functions have always been able to operate on hashes. Perl v5.12 and above make them work on arrays, too. The latter two are mainly for consistency, but you can use each to iterate over an array’s indices and values at the same time:
push @$array_ref, 1, 2, 3; # noisy
push @{$array_ref}, 1, 2, 3; # a little easier
push $array_ref->@*, 1, 2, 3; # read from left to right
So much of web development is slinging around and picking apart complicated data structures via JSON, so I welcome anything like this to reduce the cognitive load.
Sometimes in older object-oriented Perl code, you’ll see use base as a pragma to establish inheritance from another class. Older still is the direct manipulation of the package’s special @ISA array. In most cases, both should be avoided in favor of use parent, which was added to core in Perl v5.10.1.
$my_object->isa('Local::MyClass')
# or
$my_object isa Local::MyClass
The latter can take either a bareword class name or string expression, but more importantly, it’s safer as it also returns false if the left argument is undefined or isn’t a blessed object reference. The older isa() method will throw an exception in the former case and might return true if called as a class method when $my_object is actually a string of a class name that’s the same as or inherits from isa()’s argument.
I’ve written and presentedextensively about signatures and alternatives over the past year, so I won’t repeat that here. I’ll just add that the Perl 5 Porters development mailing list has been making a concerted effort over the past month to hash out the remaining issues towards rendering this feature non-experimental. The popular Mojolicious real-time web framework also provides a shortcut for enabling signatures and uses them extensively in examples.
Indented here-documents with <<~
Perl has had shell-style “here-document” syntax for embedding multi-line strings of quoted text for a long time. Starting with Perl v5.26, you can precede the delimiting string with a ~ character and Perl will both allow the ending delimiter to be indented as well as strip indentation from the embedded text. This allows for much more readable embedded code such as runs of HTML and SQL. For example:
if ($do_query) {
my $rows_deleted = $dbh->do(<<~'END_SQL', undef, 42);
DELETE FROM table
WHERE status = ?
END_SQL
say "$rows_deleted rows were deleted.";
}
More readable chained comparisons
When I learned math in school, my teachers and textbooks would often describe multiple comparisons and inequalities as a single expression. Unfortunately, when it came time to learn programming every computer language I saw required them to be broken up with a series of and (or &&) operators. With Perl v5.32, this is no more:
if ( $x < $y && $y <= $z ) { ... } # old way
if ( $x < $y <= $z ) { ... } # new way
It’s more concise, less noisy, and more like what regular math looks like.
Self-documenting named regular expression captures
Perl’s expressive regular expression matching and text-processing prowess are legendary, although overuse and poor use of readability enhancements often turn people away from them (and Perl in general). We often use regexps for extracting data from a matched pattern. For example:
if ( /Time: (..):(..):(..)/ ) { # parse out values
say "$1 hours, $2 minutes, $3 seconds";
}
if ( /Time: (?<hours>..):(?<minutes>..):(?<seconds>..)/ ) {
say "$+{hours} hours, $+{minutes} minutes, $+{seconds} seconds";
}
More readable regexp character classes
The /x regular expression modifier already enables better readability by telling the parser to ignore most whitespace, allowing you to break up complicated patterns into spaced-out groups and multiple lines with code comments. With Perl v5.26 you can specify /xx to also ignore spaces and tabs inside [bracketed] character classes, turning this:
s/foo/bar/; # changes the first foo to bar in $_
$baz =~ s/foo/bar/; # the same but in $baz
But what if you want to leave the original untouched, such as when processing an array of strings with a map? With Perl v5.14 and above, add the /r flag, which makes the substitution on a copy and returns the result:
Unicode and character encoding in general are complicated beasts. Perl has handled Unicode since v5.6 and has kept pace with fixes and support for updated standards in the intervening decades. If you need to test if two strings are equal regardless of case, use the fc function introduced in Perl v5.16.
Safer processing of file arguments with <<>>
The <> null filehandle or “diamond operator” is often used in while loops to process input per line coming either from standard input (e.g., piped from another program) or from a list of files on the command line. Unfortunately, it uses a form of Perl’s open function that interprets special characters such as pipes (|) that would allow it to insecurely run external commands. Using the <<>> “double diamond” operator introduced in Perl v5.22 forces open to treat all command-line arguments as file names only. For older Perls, the perlop documentation recommends the ARGV::readonly CPAN module.
Safer loading of Perl libraries and modules from @INC
To bootstrap access to CPAN on the web in the possible absence of external tools like curl or wget, Perl v5.14 began including the HTTP::Tiny module. You can also use it in your programs if you need a simple web client with no dependencies.
Test2: The next generation of Perl testing frameworks
Forked and refactored from the venerable Test::Builder (the basis for the Test::More library that many are familiar with), Test2 was included in the core module library beginning with Perl v5.26. I’ve experimented recently with using the Test2::SuiteCPAN library instead of Test::More and it looks pretty good. I’m also intrigued by Test2::Harness’ support for threading, forking, and preloading modules to reduce test run times.
Task::Kensho: Where to start for recommended Perl modules
This last item may not be included when you install Perl, but it’s where I turn for a collection of well-regarded CPAN modules for accomplishing a wide variety of common tasks spanning from asynchronous programming to XML. Use it as a starting point or interactively select the mix of libraries appropriate to your project.
And there you have it: a selection of 34 features, enhancements, and improvements for the first 34 years of Perl. What’s your favorite? Did I miss anything? Let me know in the comments.
I mentioned at the Ephemeral Miniconf last month that as soon as I write about one Perl module (or five), someone inevitably brings up another (or seven) I’ve missed. And of course, it happened again last week: no sooner had I written in passing that I was using Exception::Class than the denizens of the Libera Chat IRC #perl channel insisted I should use Throwable instead for defining my exceptions. (I’ve already blogged about various ways of catching exceptions.)
Why Throwable? Aside from Exception::Class’s author recommending it over his own work due to a “nicer, more modern interface,” Throwable is a Moo role, so it’s composable into classes along with other roles instead of mucking about with multiple inheritance. This means that if your exceptions need to do something reusable in your application like logging, you can also consume a role that does that and not have so much duplicate code. (No, I’m not going to pick a favorite logging module; I’ll probably get that wrong too.)
However, since Throwable is a role instead of a class, I would have to define several additional packages in my tiny modulino script from last week, one for each exception class I want. The beauty of Exception::Class is its simple declarative nature: just use it and pass a list of desired class names along with options for attributes and whatnot. What’s needed for simple use cases like mine is a declarative syntax for defining several exception classes without the noise of multiple packages.
Enter Throwable::SugarFactory, a module that enables you to do just that by adding an exception function for declaring exception classes. (There’s also the similarly-named Throwable::Factory; see the above discussion about never being able to cover everybody’s favorites.) The exception function takes three arguments: the name of the desired exception class as a string, a description, and an optional list of instructions Moo uses to build the class. It might look something like this:
package Local::My::Exceptions;
use Throwable::SugarFactory;
exception GenericError => 'something bad happened';
exception DetailedError => 'something specific happened' =>
( has => [ message => ( is => 'ro' ) ] );
1;
Throwable::SugarFactory takes care of creating constructor functions in Perl-style snake_case as well as functions for detecting what kind of exception is being caught, so you can use your new exception library like this:
#!/usr/bin/env perl
use experimental qw(isa);
use Feature::Compat::Try;
use JSON::MaybeXS;
use Local::My::Exceptions;
try {
die generic_error();
}
catch ($e) {
warn 'whoops!';
}
try {
die detailed_error( message => 'you got me' );
}
catch ($e) {
die encode_json( $e->to_hash )
if $e isa DetailedError and defined $e->message;
$e->throw if $e->does('Throwable');
die $e;
}
The above also demonstrates a couple of other Throwable::SugarFactory features. First, you get a to_hash method that returns a hash reference of all exception data, suitable for serializing to JSON. Second, you get all of Throwable’s methods, including throw for re-throwing exceptions.
So where does this leave last week’s FOAAS.com modulino client demonstration of object mocking tests? With a little bit of rewriting to define and then use our sweeter exception library, it looks like this. You can review for a description of the rest of its workings.
#!/usr/bin/env perl
package Local::CallFOAAS::Exceptions;
use Throwable::SugarFactory;
BEGIN {
exception NoMethodError =>
'no matching WebService::FOAAS method' =>
( has => [ method => ( is => 'ro' ) ] );
exception ServiceError =>
'error from WebService::FOAAS' =>
( has => [ message => ( is => 'ro' ) ] );
}
package Local::CallFOAAS; # this is a modulino
use Test2::V0; # enables strict, warnings, utf8
# declare all the new stuff we're using
use feature qw(say state);
use experimental qw(isa postderef signatures);
use Feature::Compat::Try;
use Syntax::Construct qw(non-destructive-substitution);
use WebService::FOAAS ();
use Package::Stash;
BEGIN { Local::CallFOAAS::Exceptions->import() }
my $foaas = Package::Stash->new('WebService::FOAAS');
my $run_as =
!!$ENV{CPANTEST} ? 'test'
: !defined scalar caller ? 'run'
: undef;
__PACKAGE__->$run_as(@ARGV) if defined $run_as;
sub run ( $class, @args ) {
try { say $class->call_method(@args) }
catch ($e) {
die 'No method ', $e->method, "\n"
if $e isa NoMethodError;
die 'Service error: ', $e->message, "\n"
if $e isa ServiceError;
die "$e\n";
}
return;
}
# Utilities
sub methods ($) {
state @methods = sort map s/^foaas_(.+)/$1/r,
grep /^foaas_/, $foaas->list_all_symbols('CODE');
return @methods;
}
sub call_method ( $class, $method = '', @args ) {
state %methods = map { $_ => 1 } $class->methods();
die no_method_error( method => $method )
unless $methods{$method};
return do {
try { $foaas->get_symbol("&$method")->(@args) }
catch ($e) { die service_error( message => $e ) }
};
}
# Testing
sub test ( $class, @ ) {
state $stash = Package::Stash->new($class);
state @tests = sort grep /^_test_/,
$stash->list_all_symbols('CODE');
for my $test (@tests) {
subtest $test => sub {
try { $class->$test() }
catch ($e) { diag $e }
};
}
done_testing();
return;
}
sub _test_can ($class) {
state @subs = qw(run call_method methods test);
can_ok $class, \@subs, "can do: @subs";
return;
}
sub _test_methods ($class) {
my $mock = mock 'WebService::FOAAS' => ( track => 1 );
for my $method ( $class->methods() ) {
$mock->override( $method => 1 );
ok lives { $class->call_method($method) },
"$method lives";
ok scalar $mock->sub_tracking->{$method}->@*,
"$method called";
}
return;
}
sub _test_service_failure ($class) {
my $mock = mock 'WebService::FOAAS';
for my $method ( $class->methods() ) {
$mock->override( $method => sub { die 'mocked' } );
my $exception =
dies { $class->call_method($method) };
isa_ok $exception, [ServiceError],
"$method throws ServiceError on failure";
like $exception->message, qr/^mocked/,
"correct error in $method exception";
}
return;
}
1;
[Updated, thanks to Dan Book, Karen Etheridge, and Bob Kleemann] The only goofy bit above is the need to put the exception calls in a BEGIN block and then explicitly call BEGIN { Local::CallFOAAS::Exceptions->import() }. Since the two packages are in the same file, I can’t do a use statement since the implied require would look for a corresponding file or entry in %INC. (You can get around this by messing with %INC directly or through a module like me::inlined that does that messing for you, but for a single-purpose modulino like this it’s fine.)
Over the past two years, I’ve gotten back into playing Dungeons & Dragons, the famous tabletop fantasy role-playing game. As a software developer and musician, one of my favorite character classes to play is the bard, a magical and inspiring performer or wordsmith. The list of basic bardic spells includes Vicious Mockery, enchanting verbal barbs that have the power to psychically damage and disadvantage an opponent even if they don’t understand the words. (Can you see why this is so appealing to a coder?)
Mocking has a role to play in software testing as well, in the form of mock objects that simulate parts of a system that are too brittle, too slow, too complicated, or otherwise too finicky to use in reality. They enable discrete unit testing without relying on dependencies external to the code being tested. Mocks are great for databases, web services, or other network resources where the goal is to test what you wrote, not what’s out in “the cloud” somewhere.
Speaking of web services and mocking, one of my favorites is the long-running FOAAS (link has language not safe for work), a surprisingly expansive RESTful insult service. There’s a corresponding Perl client API, of course, but what I was missing was a handy Perl script to call that API from the terminal command line. So I wrote the following over Thanksgiving break, trying to keep it simple while also showing the basics of mocking such an API. It also demonstrates some newer Perl syntax and testing techniques as well as brian d foy’s modulino concept from Mastering Perl (second edition, 2014) that marries script and module into a self-contained executable library.
#!/usr/bin/env perl
package Local::CallFOAAS; # this is a modulino
use Test2::V0; # enables strict, warnings, utf8
# declare all the new stuff we're using
use feature qw(say state);
use experimental qw(isa postderef signatures);
use Feature::Compat::Try;
use Syntax::Construct qw(non-destructive-substitution);
use WebService::FOAAS ();
use Package::Stash;
use Exception::Class (
NoMethodException => {
alias => 'throw_no_method',
fields => 'method',
},
ServiceException => { alias => 'throw_service' },
);
my $foaas = Package::Stash->new('WebService::FOAAS');
my $run_as =
!!$ENV{CPANTEST} ? 'test'
: !defined scalar caller ? 'run'
: undef;
__PACKAGE__->$run_as(@ARGV) if defined $run_as;
sub run ( $class, @args ) {
try { say $class->call_method(@args) }
catch ($e) {
die 'No method ', $e->method, "\n"
if $e isa NoMethodException;
die 'Service error: ', $e->error, "\n"
if $e isa ServiceException;
die "$e\n";
}
return;
}
# Utilities
sub methods ($) {
state @methods = sort map s/^foaas_(.+)/$1/r,
grep /^foaas_/, $foaas->list_all_symbols('CODE');
return @methods;
}
sub call_method ( $class, $method = '', @args ) {
state %methods = map { $_ => 1 } $class->methods();
throw_no_method( method => $method )
unless $methods{$method};
return do {
try { $foaas->get_symbol("&$method")->(@args) }
catch ($e) { throw_service( error => $e ) }
};
}
# Testing
sub test ( $class, @ ) {
state $stash = Package::Stash->new($class);
state @tests = sort grep /^_test_/,
$stash->list_all_symbols('CODE');
for my $test (@tests) {
subtest $test => sub {
try { $class->$test() }
catch ($e) { diag $e }
};
}
done_testing();
return;
}
sub _test_can ($class) {
state @subs = qw(run call_method methods test);
can_ok( $class, \@subs, "can do: @subs" );
return;
}
sub _test_methods ($class) {
my $mock = mock 'WebService::FOAAS' => ( track => 1 );
for my $method ( $class->methods() ) {
$mock->override( $method => 1 );
ok lives { $class->call_method($method) },
"$method lives";
ok scalar $mock->sub_tracking->{$method}->@*,
"$method called";
}
return;
}
sub _test_service_failure ($class) {
my $mock = mock 'WebService::FOAAS';
for my $method ( $class->methods() ) {
$mock->override( $method => sub { die 'mocked' } );
my $exception =
dies { $class->call_method($method) };
isa_ok $exception, ['ServiceException'],
"$method throws ServiceException on failure";
like $exception->error, qr/^mocked/,
"correct error in $method exception";
}
return;
}
1;
Let’s walk through the code above.
Preliminaries
First, there’s a generic shebang line to indicate that Unix and Linux systems should use the perl executable found in the user’s PATH via the env command. I declare a package name (in the Local:: namespace) so as not to pollute the default main package of other scripts that might want to require this as a module. Then I use the Test2::V0 bundle from Test2::Suite since the embedded testing code uses many of its functions. This also has the side effect of enabling the strict, warnings, and utf8 pragmas, so there’s no need to explicitly use them here.
(Why Test2 instead of Test::More and its derivatives and add-ons? Both are maintained by the same author, who recommends the former. I’m seeing more and more modules using it, so I thought this would be a great opportunity to learn.)
Next, I bring in the aforementioned FOAAS Perl API without importing any of its functions, Package::Stash to make metaprogramming easier, and a couple of exception classes so that the command line function and other consumers might better tell what caused a failure. In preparation for the methods below dynamically discovering what functions are provided by WebService::FOAAS, I gather up its symbol table (or stash) into the $foaas variable.
The next block determines how, if at all, I’m going to run the code as a script. If the CPANTEST environment variable is set, I’ll call the test class method sub, but if there’s no subroutine calling me I’ll execute the run class method. Either will receive the command line arguments from @ARGV. If neither of these conditions is true, do nothing; the rest of the code is method declarations.
Modulino methods, metaprogramming, and exceptions
The first of these is the run method. It’s a thin wrapper around the call_method class method detailed below, either outputting its result or dieing with an appropriate error depending on the class of exception thrown. Although I chose not to write tests for this output, future tests might call this method and catch these rethrown exceptions to match against them. The messages end with a \n newline character so die knows not to append the current script line number.
Next is a utility method called methods that uses Package::Stash’s list_all_symbols to retrieve the names of all named CODE blocks (i.e., subs) from WebService::FOAAS’s symbol table. Reading from right to left, these are then filtered with grep to only find those beginning in foaas_ and then transformed with map to remove that prefix. The list is then sorted and stored in a state variable and returned so it need not be initialized again.
(As an aside, although perlcritic sternly warns against it I’ve chosen the expression forms of grep and map here over their blockforms for simplicity’s sake. It’s OK to bend the rules if you have a good reason.)
sub call_method is where the real action takes place. Its parameters are the class that called it, the name of a FOAAS$method (defaulted to the empty string), and an array of optional arguments in @args. I build a hash or associative array from the earlier methods method which I then use to see if the passed method name is one I know about. If not, I throw a NoMethodException using the throw_no_method alias function created when I used Exception::Class at the beginning. Using a function instead of NoMethodException->throw() means that it’s checked at compile time rather than runtime, catching typos.
I get the subroutine (denoted by a & sigil) named by $method from the $foaas stash and pass it any further received arguments from @args. If that WebService::FOAAS subroutine throws an exception it’ll be caught and re-thrown as a ServiceException; otherwise call_method returns the result. It’s up to the caller to determine what, if anything, to do with that result or any thrown exceptions.
Testing the modulino with mocks
This is where I start using those Test2::Suite tools I mentioned at the beginning. The test class method starts by building a filtered list of all subs beginning with _test_ in the current class, much like methods did above with WebService::FOAAS. I then loop through that list of subs, running each as a subtest containing a class method with any exceptions reported as diagnostics.
The rest of the modulino is subtest methods, starting with a simple _test_can sanity check for the public methods in the class. Following that is _test_methods, which starts by mocking the WebService::FOAAS package and telling Test2::Mock I want to track any added, overridden, or set subs. I then loop through all the method names returned by the methods class method, overrideing each one to return a simple true value. I then test passing those names to call_method and use the hash reference returned by sub_tracking to check that the overridden sub was called. This seems a lot simpler than the Test::Builder-based mocking libraries I’ve tried like Test::MockModule and Test::MockObject.
_test_service_failure acts in much the same way, checking that call_method correctly throws ServiceExceptions if the wrapped WebService::FOAAS function dies. The main difference is that the mocked WebService::FOAASsubs are now overridden with a code reference (sub { die 'mocked' }), which call_method uses to populate the rethrown ServiceException’s error field.
Wrapping up
With luck, this article has given you some ideas, whether it’s in making scripts (perhaps legacy code) testable to improve them, or writing better unit tests that mock dependencies, or delving a little into metaprogramming so you can dynamically support and test new features of said dependencies. I hope you haven’t come away too offended, at least. Let me know in the comments what you think.
Perl is said (sometimes frustratingly) to be a do-what-I-mean programming language. Many of its statements and constructions are designed to be forgiving or have analogies to natural languages. Still others are said to be “magic,” behaving differently depending on how they’re used. Adept use of Perl asks you to not only understand this magic, but to embrace it and the expressiveness it enables. Here, then, are five ways you can bring some magic to your code.
Perl has many special variables, and first among them (literally, it’s the first documented) is $_. Also spelled $ARG if you use the English module, the documentation describes it as “the default input and pattern-matching space.” Many, many functions and statements will assume it as the default or implicit argument; you can find the full list in the documentation. Here’s an example that uses it implicitly to output the numbers from 1 to 5:
say for 1 .. 5;
Output:
1
2
3
4
5
Where some languages require an iterator variable in a for or foreach loop, in the absence of one Perl assigns it to $_.
Statement modifiers
We then use our second trick; where some other languages require a block to enclose every loop or conditional (whether denoted by braces { } or indentation), Perl allows you to put said looping or conditional statement after a single other statement, in this case the say which prints its argument(s) followed by a newline.
However, above we have no arguments passed to say and so once again the default $_ is used, now containing a number from 1 to 5 which is then printed out. It’s a very powerful and expressive idiom, enabling both the writer and reader of code to concentrate on the important thing that’s happening. It’s also entirely optional. You can just as easily type:
We mentioned the $_ variable above, and that it could also be spelled $ARG if you add use English to your code. It can be hard to read code with large amounts of punctuation, though, and even harder to remember what each variable does. Thankfully the English module provides aliases, and the perlvar man page lists them in order. It’s much easier to read and write things like $LIST_SEPARATOR, $PROCESS_ID, or $MATCH rather than $", $$, and $&, and goes a long way towards reducing Perl’s reputation as a write-only language.
Like natural languages, Perl has a concept of “context” in which words mean different things depending on their surroundings. In Perl’s case, expressions may behave differently depending on whether they expect to produce a list of values or a single value, called a scalar. Here’s a trivial example:
my @foo = (1, 2, 3); # list context, @foo contains the list
my $bar = (1, 2, 3); # scalar context, $bar contains 3
In the first line, we assign the list of numbers (1, 2, 3) to the array @foo. But in the second line, we’re assigning to the scalar variable $bar, which now contains the last item in the list.
Here’s another example, using the reverse function:
my @foo = ('one', 'two', 'three');
my @bar = reverse @foo; # @bar contains ('three', 'two', 'one')
my $baz = reverse @foo; # $baz contains 'eerhtowteno'
In list context, reverse takes its arguments and returns them in the opposite order. But in scalar context, it concatenates all of the arguments together and returns a string with the characters in opposite order.
In general, “there is no general rule for deducing a function’s behavior in scalar context from its behavior in list context.” (Dominus 1998) You’ll just have to look up the function to determine what it does, though in general, it does what you want, but if you want to force scalar context use the scalar operator:
my @foo = ('aa', 'aab', 'bbc');
my @bar = scalar grep /aa/, @foo; # returns a list (2), counting the number of matches
One of Perl’s three built-in data types is the hash, also known as an associative array. It’s an unordered collection of scalars indexed by string, rather than the numbers used by normal arrays. It’s a useful construct, and you can develop complicated data structures using just scalars, arrays, and hashes. What’s not widely known is that you can access several elements of of a hash using a hash slice, using syntax that’s similar to array slices. Here’s an example:
my ($who, $home) = @ENV{'USER', 'HOME'};
It works the other way, too: you can assign to a slice.
use v5.24; # for postfix dereferencing
use Types::Standard qw(Str Int);
use Type::Params 'compile_named';
foo('hello', 42);
sub foo {
state $check = compile_named(
param1 => Str,
param2 => Int, {optional => 1},
);
my ($param1, $param2) =
$check->(@_)->@{'param1', 'param2'};
say $param1, $param2;
}
In the example above, $check->(@_) returns the type-checked arguments to the foo() function courtesy of Type::Params’ compile_named() function. It’s returned as a hash reference, and since hashes are unordered, we specify the order in which we want the values by dereferencing and then slicing the resulting hash. The postfix dereferencing syntax was added in Perl 5.20 and made a default feature in 5.24, and reduces the number of nested brackets and braces we have to deal with.
Conclusion
I hope this article has given you a taste of some of the magic available in the Perl language. It’s these sort of features that make programming in it a bit more joyful. As always, check the documentation for complete information on these and other topics, or look for answers and ask questions on PerlMonks or Stack Overflow.
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Please try again."}},"email_for_login_code":{"placeholder_text":"Your email address","initial":{"instruction_type":"normal","instruction_message":"Enter your email to log in."},"success":{"instruction_type":"success","instruction_message":"Enter your email to log in."},"blank":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"Enter your email to log in."},"empty":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"Enter your email to log in."}},"login_code":{"initial":{"instruction_type":"normal","instruction_message":"Check your email and enter the login code."},"success":{"instruction_type":"success","instruction_message":"Check your email and enter the login code."},"blank":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"Check your email and enter the login code."},"empty":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"Check your email and enter the login code."}},"stripe_all_in_one":{"initial":{"instruction_type":"normal","instruction_message":"Enter your credit card details here."},"empty":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"Enter your credit card details here."},"success":{"instruction_type":"normal","instruction_message":"Enter your credit card details here."},"invalid_number":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"The card number is not a valid credit card number."},"invalid_expiry_month":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"The card's expiration month is invalid."},"invalid_expiry_year":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"The card's expiration year is invalid."},"invalid_cvc":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"The card's security code is invalid."},"incorrect_number":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"The card number is incorrect."},"incomplete_number":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"The card number is incomplete."},"incomplete_cvc":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"The card's security code is incomplete."},"incomplete_expiry":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"The card's expiration date is incomplete."},"incomplete_zip":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"The card's zip code is incomplete."},"expired_card":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"The card has expired."},"incorrect_cvc":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"The card's security code is incorrect."},"incorrect_zip":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"The card's zip code failed validation."},"invalid_expiry_year_past":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"The card's expiration year is in the past"},"card_declined":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"The card was declined."},"missing":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"There is no card on a customer that is being charged."},"processing_error":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"An error occurred while processing the card."},"invalid_request_error":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"Unable to process this payment, please try again or use alternative method."},"invalid_sofort_country":{"instruction_type":"error","instruction_message":"The billing country is not accepted by SOFORT. Please try another country."}}}},"fetched_oembed_html":false}